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GRE作文備考資料：

科學(xué)的哲學(xué).

Philosophy of science is the study of assumptions, foundations, and implications of science. The field is defined by an interest in one of a set of “traditional” problems or an interest in central or foundational concerns in science. In addition to these central problems for science as a whole, many philosophers of science consider these problems as they apply to particular sciences (e.g. philosophy of biology or philosophy of physics). Some philosophers of science also use contemporary results in science to draw philosophical morals. Although most practitioners are philosophers, several prominent scientists have (and do) contributed to the field.

Issues of ethics, such as bioethics and scientific misconduct, are not generally considered part of philosophy of science. These issues may be studied in ethics or science studies.

亞里士多德觀點(diǎn)：知識(shí)的定義.

“We suppose ourselves to possess unqualified scientific knowledge of a thing, as opposed to knowing it in the accidental way in which the sophist knows, when we think that we know the cause on which the fact depends, as the cause of that fact and of no other, and, further, that the fact could not be other than it is. Now that scientific knowing is something of this sort is evident—witnesses both those who falsely claim it and those who actually possess it, since the former merely imagine themselves to be, while the latter are also actually, in the condition described. Consequently the proper object of unqualified scientific knowledge is something which cannot be other than it is.”

—Aristotle, Posterior Analytics

獲取知識(shí)的四大條件.

The four requirements for knowledge are: S knows that P if (1) S knows that P is true; (2) S believes that P is true; (3) S is justified in believing that P is true; (4) S.s justification in believing that P does not rest on any false beliefs. Without these requirements, you cannot have knowledge. Your thought may still be true, however, you cannot know something if it is possible it is not true. This brings us to how you know if what you think is true. However, it is impossible for us to have this certainty. Infallible knowledge is impossible for humans to obtain based on the fact that there is always a chance that we are mistaken. Yet, the Epistemist argues: the refutation of skepticism is pure and simple. I know that there is a piece of paper in front of me, for I see a piece of paper in front of me. Skepticism says that I do not know this. Therefore skepticism is wrong. However, just as in the Epistemist.s example, the only way we can obtain knowledge is through our five senses. Whether we learn something from a class lecture, reading a book, or touching something, we are relying on our senses to convey the knowledge to us.

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